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kkk

jjj

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ooo

Writting

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phono1

A syllable must contain a vowel (or vowel-like) sound. The most common type
of syllable in language also has a consonant (C) before the vowel (V) and is
typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are
the onset (one or more consonants) and the rhyme. The rhyme (sometimes
written as ‘rime’) consists of a vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any
following consonant(s), described as the coda.
Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are
known as ‘open’ syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup,
at or hat, they are called ‘closed’ syllables. The basic structure of the kind of
syllable found in English words like green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC),
ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not (CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC),
I (V), am (VC) is shown in the accompanying diagram.
syllable
onset rhyme
nucleus coda
consonant(s) vowel consonant(s)
Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one consonant, also known
as a consonant cluster. The combination /st/ is a consonant cluster (CC) used

as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC
onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick,
twin, flat and throw. Note that liquids (/l/, /r/) and a glide (/w/) are being used
in second position.
English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in thewords stress and splat,
consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of these larger
onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must
always be /s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and then one of
these liquids or glides (/l/, /r/, /w/). You can check if this description is adequate
for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square. Does the
description also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? How
about /εk-sklejm/? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being
described, not the beginning of the word.
It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed,
the syllable structure of many languages (e.g. Japanese) is predominantly CV. It
is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters are frequently reduced
in casual conversational speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a
word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of
co-articulation effects.

photo

This type of exercise involving minimal sets also allows us to see that there are
definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language. In
English, the minimal set we have just listed does not include forms such as lig
or vig. According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could
be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of

the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms as
acceptable if, at some future time, they came into use. They might, for example,
begin as invented abbreviations (I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy.∼Yeah,
he’s a big vig). Until then, they represent ‘accidental’ gaps in the vocabulary of
English.
It is, however, no accident that forms such as [fsg] or [rng] do not exist or are
unlikely ever to exist. They have been formed without obeying some constraints
on the sequence or position of English phonemes. Such constraints are called
the phonotactics (i.e. permitted arrangements of sounds) in a language and
are obviously part of every speaker’s phonological knowledge. Because these
constraints operate on a unit that is larger than the single segment or phoneme,
we have to move on to a consideration of the basic structure of that larger
phonological unit called the syllable.

Phonotactics1

The sound patterns of language 43
Phonology; Phonemes; Phones and allophones; Minimal pairs
and sets; Phonotactics; Syllables and clusters; Co-articulation
effects; Assimilation; Elision; Normal speech; Study questions;

Research tasks; Discussion topics/projects; Bob Belviso
translated; Further reading

shifts7

More recent technical developments enable us to explore the notion of the unit of
translation in exciting ways. In Section C we have used electronic corpora to help
analyse the lexicological unit and Think-Aloud Protocols to research the thought
processes of the translator. The results are inevitably fuzzy, because of the problems
of analysing what is essentially a cognitive process. However, it does seem that
translators operate on a variety of different levels and certainly very little translation
can be carried out on a purely word level. As this section progresses, it will look at
increasingly higher levels of translation where text, discourse and ideology play
crucial roles. Unit C4, however, will first follow Vinay and Darbelnet in using the
segmentation into units of translation as a necessary prelude to the analysis of
translation shifts.

193 صفحه - an advanced

Task B11.1.1
➤ James (and linguists such as Tannen) relates coherence to intertextuality. Before
you read Text B11.1, recall the seven standards of textuality (Section A,Unit 9)
and reflect on how these cross-fertilize meaningfully (e.g. coherence is
underpinned by intertextuality and realized by cohesion).
➤ Review your notes on the two types of intertextuality – the horizontal and the
vertical (Section A, Unit 1) and provide further examples to illustrate each.
➤ Reflect on the following distinction:
What goes on ‘in translation’, i.e. in STs and TTs as ‘texts’
as opposed to
What is essentially ‘of translation’, i.e. entailed in translating as an activity
that exists in and by itself and that stands in contrast with such activities as
original writing.
➤ As you read Text B11.1, note the various definitions of genre and the examples
used to illustrate them.
➤ Focus on how the seven standards of textuality are met in Koller’s definition
of the technical text cited in this extract.
➤ Under two separate headings, note details of ‘translation as a genre’ and details
of ‘genre in translation’.
➤ Note details of parody as evidence for the existence of translation as a genre.

Text, genre and discourse shifts in translation1

As we have explained in Unit 11, Section A, recent developments in relevance
research have signalled a shift back to text typologies. These are now seen as
important templates for the alignment of communicator intentions with audience
expectations, thus guiding the text receiver in the search for optimal relevance. For
example, one would not seek intended relevance in a novel’s historical accuracy
of detail the way one would in an historical reference book.
A glance at the list of the various text typologies rehabilitated by the relevance
model, however, reveals that the term ‘textual’ is used in a fairly generic sense,
covering quite an assortment of textual products:eulog ies, summaries, novels, comic
strips, commentaries, abstracts, text books, hymn books, historical reference books,
etc. Strictly speaking, these are not all text types.While some of these forms are texts
proper (e.g. summaries, commentaries), others belong to what we have called genres
(e.g. eulogies, novels, comic strips), and still others form part of discourse (e.g.
textbooks, historical reference books).
Genre occupies Carl James in his study of translation shifts (James 1989, see Text
B11.1). James’s study may be credited with being the first to recognize, from an
essentially applied-linguistic perspective, the distinction between two levels of
abstraction in approaching the notion of genre in translation.Translation itself may
be seen as a genre in the abstract.This is a function of the total effect of choices made
and felt to be intrinsic to any act of translation (i.e. the translational sense of genre,
as in ‘all translation intrinsically seems foreign or contrived’). There is, on the
other hand, the detailed more concrete sense of genre. This subsumes all kinds of
purposeful activities with which translation, like any other form of text production,
deals and which revolve around conventionalized communicative events (i.e. the
linguistic sense of genre, as in the cooking recipe, the academic abstract

The second extract in this unit (Text B11.2) shifts the focus from genre to discourse,
and from Applied Linguistics to Cultural Studies, the discipline which examines the
cultural ramifications of issues such as conventions and attitudes. In this field of
inquiry, two basic research trends may be identified:one simply unsympathetic
to linguistics or even to discourse analysis, the other cognisant of the contribution
of discourse studies to the study of culture and translation. The latter approach may  be illustrated by the work of the Canadian cultural commentator and translation
theorist Donald Bruce which, while firmly grounded in Cultural Studies, has nevertheless
branched out in a number of interesting ways to include discursive models
and socio-political theory. Specifically, it is the focus on discourse alongside other
types of sign (genre, text, etc.) which has primarily motivated our choice of this
reading at this point in our discussion.
But, whatever the brand, Cultural Studies is credited with raising an important
question in the study of translation. This relates to which texts to translate and which
to ignore. This sensitive decision is closely bound up with the translation strategy
favoured by a given translation tradition. For example,within the Anglo-American
translation tradition, careful selection has ensured that only those texts which lend
themselves to a domesticating strategy are included, while other texts which resist
such a strategy are all but totally excluded.The question of what determines whether
a text will be translated and published or not is thus at the heart of cultural politics,
a topic that Donald Bruce addresses in his study of discourse shifts.).